Answer the following question using the following material:
What are the very specific conditions to Abies alba require to grow?
Abies Alba (Silver fir)
Silver fir key points
Human impact and relationships with the Silver fir:
Using wood /pulp: Timber and Construction: Silver fir has been widely used for its timber due to its strength and durability- framing, roofs, floors, and paneling. Making furniture, and components of instruments (only found this on one source – pianos and violin soundboards.) SOME silviculture (logging then replanting) has happened with silver firs, but they don’t tend to grow back well.
Paper. Christmas trees fit into this, although they aren’t used as much anymore. Other fir trees have a higher density of needles, so they’re better for hanging stuff on.
(Firs, however, tend to be better than spruces for Christmas trees, even though spruces tend to be very strong and their needles go all the way to the ground, unlike most pines. Why are firs better? Well, spruces have sharp, pointy, stiff, sort of cylindrical needles. Fir trees have flexible, flattened needles with rounded tips. So, I think of it as stabby spruces and friendly firs. Hanging stuff on a spruce is far less enjoyable.)
Using their needles, resin, sap, and oils: Traditional medicine: The resin (not the same as sap) was used for treating wounds and skin conditions. Needles and young shoots were used to make teas for respiratory issues. Bark decoctions were used for treating rheumatism and gout. Essential oils have their place too- aromatherapy, respiratory stuff, muscle pain, etc. Some traditional uses are by scientific research, while others need more research to be proven. Anti-inflammatory properties tend to be scientifically backed, but respiratory benefits are questionable, if you are going by Western standards, that is. Indigenous knowledge is, in my opinion, something to always consider seriously. Tannins for tanning leather. Turpentine production.
Evolutionary history and life cycle: Let’s move on to zee history o’ the conifer.
Coniferous plants came into the world far before flowering plants did (flowering plants and insects evolved at similar times!), and yet, there seems to be less research about them in general. We tend to focus on pollinators and their mutualistic relationship with trees, blooms, and changing autumn colors—the sexy stuff, obvious stuff. But that doesn’t make them any less cool. While the average lifespan of a fir, for example, is about 60 years… some have been known to live to 500 years!
Back to evolution. Conifers don’t rely on pollinators to spread their DNA- they rely on wind. Sometimes, you will find enormous amounts of chalky dusting on cars and gutters. The copious amount of pollen makes sense—the likelihood of a tree getting the right pollen in the right pinecone from perhaps a way away? It’s a bit of a long shot. Hence, occasionally dusting everything in sight.
Seed dispersal is another thing. Pollination gets you the DNA to kick off the new generation and seeds are produced. Conifers use both wind and animals to disperse their seeds. Nice resilience there.
Wind dispersal – conifers have winged seeds like the “helicopters” of maples. These winged seeds help them fly away from the parent tree. However, this can only happen if the pinecones are OPEN. Yes, you read that right: cones open and close. If you live near pines or spruces, you probably have seen this. In dry weather, they have a mechanism that stretches the bracts open, and away the seeds flutter they flutter. In wet weather, they close up tight. You can actually test this at home!
The need for the “open position” is also true when we talk about pollen. Fluffy yet compact male cones, usually at the end of a branch, release a ton of pollen, while female cones are the ones we associate “conifer” with. Big, woody. They also open when it is dry. Wet pollen isn’t effective if you can imagine. In either case, if you look at a pine/spruce tree’s base, and there are cones, you will see them compact and closed when it is wet. When they dry out, the shape reaaaaally changes and the cones look significantly larger. Male cones are typically not even noticed.)
A couple of things that set firs apart from spruces and pines is that their cones build from the bottom up and “stand” on the tops of the trees, while pines and spruces hang down or at an angle along the branchlet, many scattered along the height of the tree (spruces more in the top third, though). Fir tree cones tend to have a lot of resin on their cones. So, being both at the top as well as resiny? They really sparkle in the sun. You can tell from a distance!
You can also tell a fir looking under the tree. On a spruce, you’ll find a ton of long, papery cones. Pines will have rounded, woody cones. Fir cones, with their wavy, delicate papery layers and beautiful radial symmetry, detach and fall apart at the treetops! So, you will almost never find them littering the ground. (This is NOT true for the Douglas fir, however, because the Douglas fir is not an actual fir, but its own completely different thing).
Animal dispersal. Some conifers produce seeds inside fleshy fruits that attract animals like birds and squirrels. The animals eat the fruit and then poop the seeds (common technique here). Some animals are just “seed predators” and don’t spread the seeds… they’re totally digested instead of passed through. Pine nuts from pinyon pines are often treated this way. By us too—some of their “nuts” we use in pesto!
HOWEVER, being eaten can still have an advantage if the eater exhibits storing behavior. Some critters, like jays and squirrels, store seeds to eat during the winter. Oftentimes, especially for the jay, in a truly impressive number of places. BUT! They sometimes forget some of the seeds, and these seeds sometimes germinate and grow into new trees! So, it’s like the bird (squirrel etc.) is accidentally planting its food for the future. They’re accidental arborists.
Anatomy and broadscale adaptations and plasticity (shape change):
Overall shape: Dayna mentioned this- the overall, quasi-triangular shape that conifers have (more in spruces and firs) is due to the context of snow. They are able to bend and slide the snow, if it gets too heavy, right off. Because the needles are also so tiny and in such great numbers, the tree isn’t doing serious damage to itself. If a broadleaf tree did the same thing, its huge leaves would split or otherwise be ruined. Needles being waxy (to prevent from desiccation) also helps with shedding.
Needles, being so small and slick and numerous, create loads more surface area and can split up the weight. Because of both needles AND shape, spruces (and firs) in particular, are good to hide under during a downpour. Again, water is caught in so many more places. Slowed down. And directed to where the tree wants it. It does not pour through. Nature’s umbrella!
Needle adapting to its context: Needle dry mass per area decreases in low light, the trees making them thinner and more efficient for photosynthesis! More light can penetrate through with fewer needles!
Pines also exhibit shape changes in their crows, canopy, and branches. Horizontal branches may grow extra long, to maximize light capture under dense canopies, for example.
Adapting to the water in their surroundings:
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31182819/
This study on silver fir trees in Switzerland is pretty interesting. The researchers looked at how firs adapted to different environments across the Swiss Alps and valleys—specifically in areas that mixed forests.
Researchers studied how tall the trees grow, when they start growing in spring, and how efficiently they use water. What’s cool is that they found different “strategies” that the trees use depending on where they live. (Quick example- trees in warmer, more stable climates tended to grow taller.) As Dayna mentioned, the limiting factor often has a lot to do with water.
In inner Alpine valleys with pronounced summer droughts, our Silver fir brethren exhibit a “start early and grow slowly” approach—they begin growing earlier in the spring but take their sweet time about it. These trees also turned out to be more efficient with their water use, which makes sense. It’s like they’re being conservative or overly cautious - “We don’t know when the next rain is coming, so let’s use what we have carefully.” No risky business for these trees.
On the flip side, in areas with plenty of rain, or predictable rain, the trees do the opposite. They start growing later but then grow fast. It’s like they’re saying, “No rush, we know there’s plenty of water coming.” This was more of a general pattern in the mountainous areas which makes sense when you think about it - in the mountains, you’ve got to balance making the most of the growing season with avoiding late frosts and summer droughts. It’s a tricky juggling act!
What I loved was that this wasn’t a pattern for one age of a tree. Researchers think that as the tree grew from seedling to sapling to mature tree… they may have tended to continue using the strategy.
So why do we care? All of this information could be really useful when we think about changing conditions and climate change. If we are planting trees (or if surrounding trees are removed, changing conditions around a selected tree for study), and we know it might be drier / hotter in the future, we know what populations might do well there. If you were going to source/plant a tree, you’d want it to come from the plants that have the strategy you are likely to need.
Mycorrhizal Fungi Mutualisms: Just as trees had different strategies to compensate for water availability in their ecosystem, they also have different associations (relationships) with different strands of fungi. Once again- it’s all about the system. (For greater detail, check out Suzanne Simard’s work. She’s amazing.)
General overview of our fungal friends:
Silver fir forms mutualistic relationships with ectomycorrhizal fungi, such as Russula, Lactarius, and Cenococcum: These fungi improve nutrient uptake (like phosphorus which trees need for growth and all sorts of other stuff) and water absorption.
Ectomycorrhizal fungi are fungi that form a symbiotic relationship with tree roots. They create a wee little sheath around the root and grow between cells. They do not pierce into the cells.
Also, note that when we say fungi in this context we are really talking about the hyphae/mycelium — the tiny, white tendrils that stay below ground. We are far more familiar with the “mushroom”, but the mushroom is really just topside evidence of the fungi which sprawls out underground. The mushroom is almost nothing, if you look at mass, compared to the rest of the body. The mushroom is a “fruiting body.” It makes the spores. So, next time you go to eat a mushroom, now you know that you are eating reproductive parts. You are welcome.)
Ectomycorrhizal fungi enhance drought resistance by maintaining root health under stress, while the subterranean fungal network (“wood wide web”) allows resource sharing between trees, promoting resilience across the forest community. These are mutualist fungi! (both benefit)
Endophytic Fungi: (inside the tissue) Just about all trees in temperate areas have endophytic fungi like Oidiodendron and Meliniomyces colonize silver fir roots. These fungi may provide additional protection against pathogens or improve nutrient cycling, especially in younger trees (they go into the cells, not around them)
Fungal Decomposers: Saprophytic fungi recycle nutrients from dead silver fir material back into the soil, supporting regeneration of younger trees
This study was particularly helpful:
Root-Associated Fungal Communities From Two Phenologically Contrasting Silver Fir (Abies alba Mill.) Groups of Trees https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/plant-science/articles/10.3389/fpls.2019.00214/full
The study looked at the relationship between tree life cycles and root-associated fungal communities in silver firs. Once again, like with water, timing matters.
The researchers used the word “flushing” a lot. Unknown term to me. Simply enough, “flushing” refers to the tree’s production of new leaves/ needles in spring. So “early flushing” trees start this process earlier in the season and “late flushing ” trees start later.
The research focused on ectomycorrhizal fungi associated with the two types. (Again, these fungi help trees absorb water and nutrients in exchange for sugars, for starters.)
The study compared fungal communities in young and adult trees, categorizing them into early and late flushing groups. Their findings revealed significant differences in fungal communities between early and late flushers in young trees
Late “flushers” had higher ectomycorrhizal fungal richness.
Early flushers had more abundant Amphinema, Cortinarius, and Elaphomyces
Late flushers had more abundant Cenococcum, Clavulina, and Tylospora.
In adult trees, no significant overall differences were found between early and late flushers, though early flushers had more abundant Amanita, Cenococcum, Clavulina, Lactifluus, and Sebacina.
These findings suggest that a tree’s early or late leafing (I’m over the word flushing) influences root-associated fungal communities, especially in young trees. This could have important implications for forest ecology and management, particularly in the context of climate change affecting said trees.
Tree friends: more mutual symbiosis
Firs do best in mixed stands BECAUSE while they do pretty well in shaded areas compared to most trees in their ecosystem, and while they do have super deep roots that help with soil stability (and preventing erosion), they aren’t particularly strong in wind. They’re a bit like generalists. Some light, but not too much light. Some moisture in the ground, but not too much.
In mountainous areas / at higher elevations: Norway spruce (Picea abies), Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris, happens to be my favorite pine)
At lower altitudes and in mixed forests: European beech (Fagus sylvatica)
Other associated species mentioned: Larch (Larix decidua) Juniper (Juniperus communis)
BUT, the relationship with the beech tree is the one to highlight.
While the fir is shade-tolerant, it can get super old (again! 500 years!), it is sensitive to drought, as we’ve seen earlier. It also wants nutrient-rich, slightly acidic soil, and a humid climate. And, it doesn’t love exposure to wind. So who helps with those things? The beech!
Soil: Beech tree leaves decompose a heck of a lot faster than pine needles (which is why you see so many needles on the ground – firs lose them slowly, but they break them down infinitesimally slower) and they do it every year. That significantly helps give the fir what it wants- rich soil. Firs have a hard time making that soil on their own.
pH: This nutrient-rich soil pH is also tempered by the beech—it neutralizes some of the acid, which can be, ironically, good for the fir too. Firs like neutral to slightly acidic soil.
Moisture: Beeches are famous for creating microclimates under their broad, sometimes huge canopies. These cool, humid patches reduce desiccation of lower needles, but also—the soil doesn’t dry out. Dry soil = less decomposer activity = less rich soil /soil that is made more slowly. So, beeches provide extra humidity which the fir loves… it all connects.
In return, the firs, again, provide that structural stability, having such deep tap roots. They can move water up and around the soil, water too far for the beech to reach. Their roots also protect against erosion.
Because their roots travel so deep, they also can access nutrients way down there that the beech cannot…and if the mycorrhizal network promotes sharing—you can see how this works. Dispersed goodness from above and below.
Beeches and firs are also compatible not just because they share/create good living conditions for each other, but also because they occupy different niches, which reduces competition. The deep roots of a fir don’t compete with the broad, shallow roots of the beech. Same with nutrients. Firs can also change their shape and become more narrow so they compete less for sunlight!
All of these factors make the fir tree a keystone species.
Note: Common misconception time! Evergreen doesn’t mean conifer, and deciduous doesn’t mean it’s got big leaves—that’s just how we typically experience them in temperate environments.
Dropping it low are the deciduous trees. Meaning, these trees drop most of their leaves, seasonally. Larches, which are in the pine family, fall off every year. So, while they’re coniferous… they’re not evergreen, but deciduous.
Some broadleaf trees in the tropics let their leaves seasonally when it is the dry season—and thus are deciduous-but others don’t drop them seasonally if there’s enough water (and depending on the tree type) to go around), so some of these juicy, broadleaf leaves are evergreen. It makes sense immediately once you tease it apart. Evergreen stay green and shed here and there. Deciduous generally drop all at once.
Integrating Life’s Principles
If I think about the fir, the following Life’s Principles immediately spring to mind:
Adapt to changing conditions: For example, plasticity- needle mass/density, branches, crown. Links to sub-principle:
Embody resilience
Be locally attuned and responsive:
Use readily available materials and energy
Cultivate cooperative relationships
Be resourceful with materials and energy
Fit form to function
Use multifunctional design
Research paper blurbs
Research paper blurb 1:
Title Effects of nursery production methods on fungal community diversity within soil and roots of Abies alba Mill.
Marlena Baranowska, Jolanta Behnke-Borowczyk, etc.
link https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-48047-y
Authors: Danielle Cu
” Silver fir (Abies alba Mill.) is one of the most important forest tree species in the mountainous and upland
regions of Poland, as well as in all important European alpine zones. The presence of silver fir increases the bio-
diversity of forest ecosystems and enhances their resistance to wind, snow, and ice storms, making forest stands
less susceptible to natural disturbances, such as fungal diseases and specialised insect herbivores. Widespread
introduction of spruce monocultures, deforestation, and a strong vulnerability to air and soil pollution have
reduced areas occupied by this species and reduced not only distribution to new areas, but also spontaneous
restoration. This restricted migration and limited genetic variability has made A. alba particularly sensitive to
changes in climate. When taking ongoing climate change into account, these attributes could result in not only
a stronger limit on range, but also a strong effect on natural regeneration and growth, making this species with
its discrete provenances adapted to specific mountain conditions more prone to extinction. For this reason, the
State Forests (Poland) introduced a programme of artificial restoration of valuable and unique fir resources in
the Sudeten Mountains.
.
Both biotic and abiotic factors strongly affect plant growth in forest stands, but even more significantly regu-
late seedling growth in the initial stages, even in forest nurseries. High soil fertilisation and overwatering
could play a large role in seedlings’ inability to adapt in order to overcome future water deficits, but can also posi-
tively result in a root and associated fungal community composition characterised by acquisitive ability within
competitive mountain environments13–15. In view of the richness of mycocenoses, it is essential to determine
the community of soil fungi accompanying a given tree species at the stage of nursery production, in order to
ensure a controlled effect on its future composition and abundance in order to produce the best possible quality
of planting material. The quality of forest nursery seedlings is affected by many elements, including production”
Blurb 2:
Plants for a Future: Abies Alba
https://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Abies+alba
Authors: Not specified
Medicinal Uses
“The buds are antibiotic, antiseptic and balsamic[7]. The bark is antiseptic and astringent[7]. It can be harvested as required throughout the year[238]. The leaves are expectorant and a bronchial sedative[7]. They are best harvested in the spring and can be dried for later use[238]. The resin is antiseptic, balsamic, diuretic, eupeptic, expectorant, vasoconstrictor and vulnerary[7]. Both the leaves and the resin are common ingredients in remedies for colds and coughs, either taken internally or used as an inhalant[238]. The leaves and/or the resin are used in folk medicine to treat bronchitis, cystitis, leucorrhoea, ulcers and flatulent colic[268]. The resin is also used externally in bath extracts, rubbing oils etc for treating rheumatic pains and neuralgia[238]. Oil of Turpentine, which is obtained from the trunk of the tree, is occasionally used instead of the leaves or the resin. The oil is also rubefacient and can be applied externally in the treatment of neuralgia[268].”
Other Uses
“An oleo-resin is obtained from blister-like swellings in the bark[64, 100]. It is harvested in the summer and used fresh, dried or distilled for oil[238]. The resin extracted from it is used in perfumery, medicine and for caulking ships[46, 61, 64, 100]. It is called ‘Strasburg Turpentine’[46]. Oil of turpentine is an important solvent in the paint industry[238]. The residue, known as ‘rosin oil’, is used in making varnishes, lacquers and carbon black (for pigments and ink)[238]. Resin is tapped from trees about 60 - 80 years old in the spring and used for the distillation of oil[238]. An essential oil obtained from the leaves is used as a disinfectant and also in medicine and perfumery[46, 61]. It is a common ingredient in many bath products, giving them their familiar pine scent[7]. The bark is a source of tannin[7]. Wood - light, soft, durable, elastic. The timber of this tree is especially sought after for its lightness, it is used for construction, furniture, boxes, pulp etc[7, 46, 61, 89, 101].”
The reference list is available on their website under each section. Again, see here: https://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Abies+alba .
Abies alba on site: Our Celebritree
Site: CZECHIA TREE: Latitude: 49.5547477 Longitude: 18.4949423
Elevation:766m https://www.google.com/maps/place/49%C2%B033’17.1%22N+18%C2%B029’41.8%22E/@49.6215463,17.872366,137112m/data=!3m1!1e3!4m4!3m3!8m2!3d49.5547477!4d18.4949423?entry=ttu&g_ep=EgoyMDI1MDIxOC4wIKXMDSoASAFQAw%3D%3D
The site in question is surrounded by dense forest. Just adjacent to the site, slices perpendicular to small roads reach into the forest on both sides. This may be evidence of silviculture (logging), but it is difficult to tell from the resolution. Theoretically, a tree would do well here, surrounded by forest and seemingly protected from wind. Likely the ecosystem is the natural mixed forest as silver fir aren’t usually cultivated in a monoculture. That being said, when you have roads that provide access to a forest with strips removed like this, it can be an indicator of what may be to come. If substantial logging does occur, and the fir trees lose their protection, very possible that the tree would be more at-risk.
To the south, we see ski areas, made obvious from interconnected yet irregular bare patches. A hop to the west across what appears to be the region’s main road shows protected national forests (Malenovický kotel), vista points, and hiking. All of this speaks to the presumed cultural importance of being outside, enjoying activity in nature, and perhaps valuing trees inherently. It is pretty common in European cultures that practice silviculture (take Sweden for example) that there is a simultaneous respect for trees and that their value does go beyond what they can do for us. So, the relationship with trees can be a nuanced relationship across stakeholders. I would be curious if the ski resort showcases the local nature in any way, making the landscape (beyond just a stunning view) part of the point of being there rather than focusing solely on the trails themselves.
Ecoregion:
The site falls within the Central European Mixed Forests ecoregion but is just north of the neighboring Carpathian Mountains and Plains Mixed Forests. Looking at the ecoregion is helpful to get a sense of the ecosystem as a whole, highlighting key or iconic organisms, while painting a picture of what the landscape looks and feels like. It’s worth it to go to the websites. The “general notes” section below has captured the content from the links above.
Biomimetic Connections
At present, there is a lack of biomimetic applications readily available or in prototype form. Rather, the focus still seems to be the extraction of materials from the tree rather than viewing the tree as a mentor.
From an extraction perspective we find that research on conifer biorefinery has been gaining momentum as a sustainable approach to utilize forestry biomass side streams and reduce reliance on fossil resources. Many are redundant with early examples of how humans use the fir. Nevertheless, a super quick search revealed this:
Coniferous Needle Biorefinery. Researchers are exploring biorefinery methods for coniferous tree forestry biomass side streams, particularly needles and greenery. Replacement of fossil-based chemicals — Building blocks for bio-based materials. Food and feed applications. Fine chemicals production
Extraction Methods. Water extraction, especially hot water, has shown potential in extracting up to 40% of needle biomass. This method yields extracts containing both primary and secondary metabolites, making it environmentally safe and cost-effective
Value-Added Products. Several products can be derived from coniferous biomass through biorefinery processes: Essential oils for pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and food industries. Waxes for superhydrophobic coatings. Bioactive compounds for pharmaceutical or nutraceutical products
Bioethanol Production. While coniferous needles have been investigated for bioethanol production, the yield is relatively low (3.89%) compared to other feedstocks like wheat (39%) and corn (41%). This is due to low cellulose content and the presence of inhibitory compounds1.
Composite Materials. Coniferous needles have been used as fibers in combination with synthetic and biodegradable polymers to develop composites with enhanced mechanical properties
Despite the extractive perspective here, there is a core piece here that could provide inspiration- largely the idea of waste being a resource. Nature does not waste. So, what if we thought about biomimetic innovation through a systems perspective? After all, a tree’s survival is strongly tied to their relationships with neighboring trees and fungi (insects, mammals, birds, etc). So how might streams of energy and materials move throughout our system? How do the organisms here (us) use waste as a resource? There are industrial parks and other organizations which are already “swapping” their waste to someone in the system, and getting a helpful byproduct from another! How can we “close the loop”? There are always opportunities here.
Sources:
- https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10609605/
- https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37894564/
Ai generated Silver fir story example
Note: Way more iterations and prodding before Ai produced something even vaguely usable. Nuances and important details were missing. In telling the tree’s story, it is easy to anthropomorphize a little bit too much; like we talked about in our call, something that is bad for the human world might be good for the tree OR good for the forest. In this case, carbon dioxide.
I am Abies alba, the silver fir, and my story spans millennia. My life is measured not in years, but in centuries - some of my kin have lived for over 500 years, witnessing the rise and fall of human empires, the changing of seasons hundreds of times over.
In my youth, the world was in flux. Ice sheets advanced and retreated, reshaping the landscape. During the harshest times, my kind found refuge in the southern peninsulas of Europe - the Apennines, Pyrenees, and Balkans. These sanctuaries allowed us to endure, but also shaped us. Isolated from one another, we developed unique traits, a diversity that would later prove crucial to our survival.
As the ice receded, we ventured north again. I found my home in the mountains of central Europe, where cool, misty air caressed my needles and rich, moist soil nourished my roots. Here, I learned to thrive in the shadows of ancient forests, patiently waiting for my moment to reach for the sky.
I’ve faced storms that threatened to uproot me, droughts that tested the limits of my deep-reaching roots, and winters so harsh they froze the very sap in my veins. Yet, I endured. My relationships with other species have been key to my survival. I share the forest with my old friend, the European beech. We’ve learned to coexist, our differences becoming our strengths. My deeper roots complement its shallow ones, and together we create a forest more resilient than either of us could alone.
Beneath the soil, I’m connected to a vast network of fungal threads - my mycorrhizal partners. They extend my reach, bringing me nutrients and water from afar, and in return, I share the sugars I produce through photosynthesis. This underground alliance has been crucial, especially in times of stress.
I’ve faced many challenges brought by humans. Vast swathes of my kin were cleared for timber and farmland. Then came the era of air pollution - a time when sulfur dioxide and other pollutants choked the life from my needles, weakening me and my brethren. It was a dark time, and many of us feared we wouldn’t survive.
But humans, in their complexity, also brought change for the better. As they realized the harm they were causing, they altered their ways. Emissions were reduced, and the air began to clear. To the surprise of many, we silver firs showed remarkable resilience. Once the air improved, we recovered swiftly, our needles growing strong and vibrant once more. This recovery demonstrated our adaptability and strength, traits honed over millions of years of evolution.
Now, we face a new challenge - climate change. It brings warmer temperatures, unpredictable rainfall, and more frequent storms. These changes test us in new ways, forcing us to adapt once again. Some of my cousins are moving to higher altitudes, while others are developing greater drought tolerance.
Yet, this change also brings an unexpected boon - higher concentrations of carbon dioxide in the air. As a tree, I thrive on CO2, using it to fuel my growth through photosynthesis. This abundance of carbon dioxide is like a feast for my needles, allowing me to grow faster and potentially mitigate some of the stress brought by other climatic changes. However, we’re not naive. We know that this benefit comes with significant costs to the broader ecosystem and that the rapid pace of change may outstrip even our considerable adaptive capabilities. It’s a complex situation, one that we trees observe with a mixture of opportunity and concern.
As I stand here, my roots deep in the earth and my crown reaching for the sky, I feel the weight of my history and the potential of my future. I’ve seen much in my long life, and I have much yet to see. We silver firs are a hardy bunch, shaped by ice ages, human activities, and now a changing climate. For as long as the mountains stand and the seasons turn, we will endure, silent sentinels of the European forests, adapting and evolving as we always have.
GENERAL NOTES
ECOREGIONS
Central European Mixed Forests
“These expansive lowland plains play host to mystical oak forests, where remnant populations of European bison roam wild. Though much of the land now lay open as human-transformed meadows and pastures, swathes of natural woodland can still be found: the bewitching Białowieża Forest is one of the last large fragments of primeval forest in Europe. Greater-spotted and white-tailed eagles soar above its lofty canopies, where Norway spruce trees can reach an astonishing 50 m tall.
The flagship species of the Central European Mixed Forests ecoregion is the European bison (Bison bonasus)
Traversing the lowland plains of Northern Europe, this ecoregion spans large areas of Poland, Belarus, Lithuania, and Ukraine; small portions extend into Germany, Romania, Moldova, Austria, and the Russian Federation. There is a continental climate, which is most pronounced towards the East. Natural forests contain oak, European hornbeam, lime, and beech, though Norway spruce and European silver fir are common in the North.
Where the ground is waterlogged, black alder, downy birch, and thickets of willow prosper. Extensively planted and managed for its commercial value, Scots pine is now the most common tree species in the region; in Western Poland, it can constitute up to 90% of forest stands.
The white-backed woodpecker is a characteristic species of this ecoregion, requiring high-quality habitat: old-growth forest and large amounts of dead and dying trees. Its presence correlates well with other charismatic forest residents: brown bear, Eurasian lynx, grey wolf, and European bison. After World War I, European bison were extirpated across much of their home range, except for a small population in the Caucasus Mountains.
Numerous reintroduction programs have since returned these primeval beasts to almost all countries of this ecoregion, with some 4,500 animals roaming in 51 free-ranging herds,, Other species of conservation concern include spotted souslik, pond bat, barbastelle, and black grouse. The level of endemism here is low, though an interesting phenomenon is the occurrence of boreal species such as cloudberry and dwarf birch in the Northern climes, remnant survivors of previous glaciation events.
This ecoregion is both densely populated and heavily altered. Much of the original vegetation was destroyed by humans long ago, and it has been estimated that only 0.2% of pristine forests remain. Agriculture, plantations, and urbanization are the key drivers of habitat transformation, though widespread semi-natural habitats, such as traditional pastures, still support important plant and animal communities.
Hunting is an economically important industry, and red deer, fallow deer, ducks, and pheasants are stocked in forests. Poland’s Białowieża Forest is a key protected area, harboring old-growth woodland, as well as abundant plants, fungi, and slime molds; it is famous for hosting the world’s largest free-ranging herd of European bison. The extensive Podolskie Tovtry National Park in Ukraine boasts spectacular canyons, lakes, and caves, whilst the mosaic of woodland and meadow in Germany’s Westhavelland is a refuge for great bustards.
Legal protection does not preclude threats, as logging and regular hunting are commonplace in most protected areas. Overstocking of game animals results in heavy pressure on forests and crops; the release of purpose-bred mallards has led to erosion and homogenization of wild gene pools. Ecosystems supported by semi-natural habitats are now threatened by more intense management in some areas, and abandonment of traditional management in others.
In Poland, management plans seek to strengthen ecological corridors by targeted forestation of agricultural land, and to aid bird and insect populations by increasing the amount of dead wood in forest ecosystems. Reforestation is also a target in Belarus and Ukraine.
European bison are threatened by low genetic diversity and the small size and isolation of reintroduced populations. Several countries are forming initiatives to establish large meta-populations, functionally linking existing herds and introducing new ones.
The priority conservation actions for the next decade will be to: 1) regulate the stocking of game animals to within habitat carry capacities; 2) introduce stricter measures to prevent overexploitation of wildlife within protected areas; and 3) prevent isolation of European bison populations by increasing connectivity of protected areas across the ecoregion.”
Carpathian Mountains and Plains Mixed Forests
“An alluring wilderness of boundless forests and lustrous lakes, the Carpathian Mountains are one of the richest cultural and ecological landscapes in Europe. Precipitous slopes and deep valleys are verdant with over a third of all European plant species, whilst treetops are graced by imperial and golden eagles. Furthermore, this is a bastion for Europe’s largest carnivores: the mountains are the last refuge on the continent for viable populations of brown bear, Eurasian lynx, and grey wolf.
… There is a temperate-continental climate, producing moderately cool and humid conditions.
Oak dominated foothills give way to montane forests of European beech, silver fir, Norway spruce, and sycamore, though pure beech stands are not uncommon. Above the timberline, mountain pine, dwarf juniper, and green alder form dense thickets. Lush alpine meadows abound in the high mountain zone, where numerous lakes lie within cirques and glacial valleys. This region is a vital watershed, feeding the major rivers of Central Europe.
Endemic flora is plentiful: heart-leaf comfrey and laserwort are broadly distributed, whilst Saxifraga wahlenbergii, Delphinium oxysepalum, and Festuca tatrae are only found in the Tatras Mountains. Endemic animals include Tatra pine vole, Carpathian newt, and a wealth of invertebrates; at least 43 endemic species of caddisfly have been identified. The Carpathians are a stronghold for large carnivores in Europe, harboring around 3,500 grey wolves, 2,400 Eurasian lynx, and more than 8,000 brown bears; all of these populations are stable. Additionally, the forests and grasslands are a sanctuary for threatened bird species such as imperial eagle, Ural owl, black grouse, and corncrake.
“…Mountain shepherding has always been one of the most important elements of Carpathian culture, and traditional forms of sheep, cattle, and horse grazing persist in the Southern and Eastern Carpathians in Romania and Ukraine. Major changes in socio-economic and political conditions in the last century caused widespread agricultural abandonment, whilst many native forest stands were replaced by monocultures of Norway spruce.
Logging is the main source of income in many areas today, though the Carpathians still host Europe’s largest remaining natural mountain beech forest outside of the Russian Federation. Rare and endemic plants are legally protected, and most endemics are in strictly protected areas. These include Tatras Biosphere Reserve on the border between Poland and Slovakia, Carpathian National Park in Ukraine, and Retezat National Park in Romania.”
In the 20th century, industrial expansion caused severe air and water pollution, significantly damaging forests due to sulphur emissions and acid rain; resulting forest decline is ongoing due to the long-lasting impacts of heavy metals. Recent decades have seen a rapid increase in the development of large tourist centers and ski resorts, particularly in protected areas. Mass tourism also favors the introduction of invasive species, and the invasive grass Poa annua is known to occur alongside tourist trails.
Furthermore, the Eastern Carpathians in Romania and Ukraine are still threatened by clear-cutting of near-natural forest. The Carpathian Convention is a transnational initiative that has made substantial progress in protecting the region’s biodiversity. This includes expanding protected area corridors, establishing economic values of protected areas, training of local people for sustainable management and community outreach, and tracking of protected area effectiveness.
…The priority conservation actions for the next decade will be to: 1) promote the establishment of a Carpathian Space through an ecological network of large viable protected areas; 2) identify schemes of sustainable financing for conservation initiatives in the Carpathian countries; and 3) continue capacity building programs to secure professional support for protected area management.”